The Racist History of Medical Research
醫學研究的種族歧視歷史
原文：Left Voice
https://www.leftvoice.org/the-racist-history-of-medical-research
譯文：苦勞網 https://www.coolloud.org.tw/node/94279
譯者：陳韋綸
【編按】上月初法國醫師建議於非洲進行新冠病毒疫苗的人體試驗，此番言論一出，立即
引發世衛組織、反歧視團體與非洲運動員痛批為「種族主義」。一片撻伐聲浪之後，兩名
發言的醫師也隨即為失言道歉。
然而，法國醫師的意見不僅是「失言」，更反映長久以來將黑人當作研究客體的醫療實驗
歷史。本文指出：西方醫療實驗歷史建基於種族主義與殖民壓迫，包括對非裔黑人進行不
道德的人體試驗，或者利用前殖民地國家管制寬鬆及貧窮率較高的條件從事臨床實驗，而
這樣的物質條件卻又是帝國主義數世紀以來剝削的結果。
Last week, two French doctors suggested that a COVID-19 vaccine trial should
be conducted on people in Africa. On a French TV channel, the head doctor at
a Paris hospital ICU asked, “Should we not do this study in Africa where
there are no masks, no treatment or intensive care[?]” Numerous
organizations and individuals — from politicians and anti-racism groups to
athletes — expressed outrage at the comments. The World Health Organization
(WHO) swiftly condemned the statements, with Director General Dr. Ghebreyesus
saying that Africa “won’t be a testing ground” and that the French doctors
were displaying a “colonial mentality.” The French doctors later offered a
tepid semi-apology over their “clumsily expressed” statements.
上星期(4月1日)，兩位法國醫師建議新型冠狀病毒疫苗應在非洲進行人體測試[註1]。某
間巴黎醫院加護病房的主治醫師問道：「我們不是應該在缺乏口罩、治療與重症照顧的非
洲進行研究嗎？」這番言論隨即引發政治人物、反種族主義團體乃至於非洲運動員等許多
組織與個人的怒火[註2]。世界衛生組織（WHO）很快譴責這番說法[註3]，總幹事譚德塞
表示非洲「將不會淪為試驗場」，並稱法國醫師展示了「殖民心態」。法國醫師稍後對於
自己「笨拙的言論」表達了沒啥誠懇的道歉[註4]。
[註1, 2] Aljazeera: Racism row as French doctors suggest virus vaccine test
in Africa https://tinyurl.com/vmjjpes
[註3] BBC: Coronavirus: Africa will not be testing ground for vaccine, says
WHO https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52192184
[註4] abc News: French doctor apologizes for comments on testing a COVID-19
vaccine in Africa, prompting outrage on social media
https://tinyurl.com/rjlkgwn
But these were not “clumsily expressed” remarks: they are consistent with a
long history of using Black and Brown people as guinea pigs in scientific
research. From the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, capitalist
countries’ quest for raw materials and cheap labor drove their expansion
into overseas territories, dividing the world among themselves. This brutal
conquest and exploitation was justified by racism, and notions of colonized
peoples’ inherent inferiority and disposability — a “colonial mentality,”
in the words of the WHO’s Dr. Ghebreyesus.
但這不只是「笨拙的言論」而已，而是符合長久以來將黑人與中東人當作小白鼠的科學研
究歷史。19世紀晚期至20世紀初，資本主義國家為了追求原物料與廉價勞動力[註5]而擴
張海外領土，並自行瓜分了世界[註6]。種族主義，以及「被殖民的人民天生自卑[註7]且
容易被支配」的言論正當化[註8]了殘酷的征服與剝削——以世衛組織譚德塞博士的話來
說，就是「殖民心態」。
[註5] Review of African Political Economy: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa:
The Legacy of Walter Rodney https://tinyurl.com/yarceybl
[註6] Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism,
https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/
[註7] Washington Post: American medicine was built on the backs of slaves and
it still affects how doctors treat patients today https://tinyurl.com/y9olbv8o
[註8] Left Voice: Revolution and Black Struggle: Marxism as a Weapon Against
Racism and Capitalism https://tinyurl.com/yaexlnry
As historian Helen Tilley notes, following the establishment of colonies in
the Global South, medical services and infrastructure were developed and went
“hand-in-glove” with scientific research. Colonized people therefore served
as research subjects from the beginning of imperialism. Racist
pseudo-scientific beliefs flourished to rationalize experimentation in
particular, for example about Black people’s higher pain tolerance (a belief
that some continue to endorse). The French doctors’ recent statements thus
reflect long-standing racist beliefs about Black and Brown people’s
expendability, and show that the medical establishment is happy to continue
to exploit them for research.
一如歷史家海倫‧提利（Helen Tilley）指出[註9]，隨著殖民地在南方國家建立，醫療
服務與基礎建設便與科學研究「合作」發展。打從帝國主義之初，被殖民人民便被當成研
究的客體。種族主義的偽科學信仰興盛，並專門用來合理化實驗，例如黑人忍痛度較高（
至今仍有人支持這番說法[註10]）。法國醫師近日言論反映了長久以來將黑人與中東人當
作消耗品的種族主義思想，也顯示了醫療機構樂於繼續為了研究而剝削他們。
[註9] AMA Journal of Ethics: Medicine, Empires, and Ethics in Colonial Africa
https://tinyurl.com/yc3lzz5j
[註10] Pubmed: Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations,
and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27044069
Centuries of imperialist exploitation has also led to material conditions
that have reduced barriers to research and lowered the cost of clinical
trials. Countries in the Global South have laxer regulatory safeguards, and
less red tape than does research in the Global North. These countries
typically lack the resources and local expertise to maintain ethical review
committees, leading to minimal oversight. Compensation for participation is
low, and sometimes nonexistent for illness or death. Labor and infrastructure
costs are significantly lower than in the Global North. Similarly, many of
the countries which are popular locations for clinical trials also have
relatively high rates of illiteracy and poverty, which often increases people
’s willingness to take part in research that presents a unique opportunity
to support their families and receive treatment that would otherwise be out
of reach.
數世紀以來帝國主義剝削所形成的物質條件，減少了研究障礙[註11]並降低臨床試驗成本
。南方國家的管制規範較寬鬆，研究方面的繁文縟節也較少。這些國家通常缺乏運作道德
委員會[註12]所需的資源[註13]與本土專家，導致監督幾乎不存在。參與試驗的補償[註
14]很少，參與者一旦生病或死亡，甚至無法獲得補償。南方國家的勞動力與基礎建設成
本遠低於北方國家[註15]。同樣地，許多臨床試驗的熱門國家，其文盲比例與貧窮率相對
較高[註16]，經常增加人們參與研究的意願，因為這是養家餬口的絕佳機會，還能得到原
本無法獲得的治療。
[註11] The Conversation: Ethics vs economics: the cost of outsourcing
clinical trials to developing countries https://tinyurl.com/y9rtmeqy
[註12] Journal of Clinical Research & Bioethics: Issues of Research Ethics in
Developing World https://tinyurl.com/y94vqup3
[註13] Science: African research projects are failing because funding
agencies can’t match donor money https://tinyurl.com/y5b5hccj
[註14] Nature: India shakes up rules on clinical trials
https://tinyurl.com/y8ysquq9
[註15] Pubmed: Ethical Implications of the Globalization of Clinical
Research, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19228627
[註16] The Atlantic: Testing Drugs on the Developing World
https://tinyurl.com/ybfb6abw
Importantly, these conditions are not intrinsic characteristics of
imperialized nations or accidents of geography, nor are they — as some claim
— consequences of developing nations underfunding research. Rather, as
Guyanese academic and anti-imperialist Walter Rodney argued, underdevelopment
is a direct result of capitalist expansion and imperialism. Development in
the Global North came at the expense of colonized nations, and imperialist
extraction siphoned wealth from the Global South while preventing these
nations from developing their economies. This imperialist plunder continues
today, and has created the material conditions that favor research in
formerly colonized countries.
重要的是，這些條件並非被帝國主義統治的國家與生俱來的特徵，或是出於地理因素的意
外，也並非如某些人所宣稱[註17]，是發展中國家研究經費不足的結果。相反地，一如圭
亞那反帝國主義學者沃爾特‧羅德尼（Walter Rodney）的主張[註18]，發展不足是資本
主義與帝國主義擴張的直接結果。北方國家的發展是以被殖民國家為代價，帝國主義自南
方國家搾取財富，卻阻止這些國家發展自己的經濟。帝國主義的掠奪持續至今[註19]，並
在前殖民地國家創造有利於研究的物質條件。
[註17] Quartz Africa: Africa’s medical scientists are struggling to get
funding to back their research https://tinyurl.com/y8k9mujk
[註18] Review of African Political Economy: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa:
The Legacy of Walter Rodney https://tinyurl.com/yarceybl
[註19] The Guardian: World is plundering Africa's wealth of 'billions of
dollars a year' https://tinyurl.com/n4jr4pp
Racist Experimentation in the United States
美國的種族主義實驗
Black people in particular have been exploited for medical research
throughout U.S. history. In an interview with Time Magazine, medical
historian Harriet Washington points out that we do not appreciate the scope
of research on black Americans, and that there is “no sphere of American
medicine that was not touched by the use in research of African-Americans.”
Perhaps the most well-known case is the Tuskegee Experiment, where 399 black
men in 1932 with syphilis were deceived into thinking they were receiving
treatment for their condition. In reality, the men received placebo
treatments so that researchers could study the disease’s progression. The “
experiment” was halted in 1972, nearly 30 years after an effective treatment
for syphilis was discovered.
美國歷史上，黑人特別容易被醫療研究剝削。醫療史學者哈里特‧華盛頓[註20]（
Harriet Washington）指出，我們並未察覺在美國黑人身上進行的研究規模之大，而「美
國醫藥領域沒有任何一塊未涉及利用非裔黑人進行研究」。也許最知名的案例是塔斯基吉
梅毒實驗[註21]（Tuskegee Experiment）。1932年，399名感染梅毒的黑人男性遭欺騙，
以為自己正在接受治療。實際上，他們被施以安慰劑（placebo），如此一來研究人員才
能研究梅毒的發展。「實驗」直到1972年才終止，當時梅毒有效治療方法已問世30年。
[註20] Democracy Now: Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical
Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present
https://tinyurl.com/y7g4aqej
[註21] History: Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study
https://www.history.com/news/the-infamous-40-year-tuskegee-study
However, as Washington notes, the Tuskegee Experiment is notable for its
recognition by the government, rather than for its brutality. The full list
of horrific experimentation on African Americans is unfathomably long and
ultimately unknowable. Prior to the nineteenth century, Western medicine was
dangerous, and “treatments” included poisons such as arsenic, and forced
bleeding and vomiting. Slaves, seen as particularly expendable during the
slave trade, bore the brunt of the torturous “research” into these
remedies.
然而，一如華盛頓指出，塔斯基吉梅毒實驗之所以知名，是因為得到政府認可而非其暴行
。加諸非裔黑人的恐怖實驗罄竹難書。19世紀前，西方醫學不但危險，其「治療」更包括
砒霜、強製出血與催吐。奴隸交易期間，奴隸被視為用完即棄的消耗品，在追求治療的過
程中，他們首當其衝接受這些痛苦的「研究」。
In the early 1800s, when the U.S. imposed a ban on the importation of slaves,
slave-owners had to depend on domestically sustained slavery and became more
concerned with maintaining their slaves’ health. The interests of
slave-owners aligned with doctors who received a steady supply of dehumanized
bodies on which to experiment, and gynecologists in particular benefited from
the pressure for slaves to reproduce. The majority of early gynecological
advances were derived from nonconsensual experiments on black women. J Marion
Sims, the “father of gynecology” — inventor of the vaginal speculum and
treatments for various childbirth complications — forcibly experimented on a
group of black women, performing 40 painful surgeries on one woman alone.
Only in 2018 did New York City remove a statue honoring the doctor.
19世紀初，美國禁止奴隸進口，奴隸主必須仰賴國內供應奴隸，因此更加注重奴隸的健康
。奴隸主的利益與醫師一致[註22]，後者獲得源源不絕、去人性化的身體進行實驗，婦科
醫師更是因奴隸再生產的壓力而獲益。絕大多數婦科的早期進展，源於對黑人婦女的強迫
實驗[註23]。「婦科之父」[註24]J.‧馬里恩‧西姆斯 （J. Marion Sims）發明了窺陰
器與許多生產併發症的治療方法，但他強迫一群黑人婦女參與實驗，並對一名婦女實施40
次痛苦的手術。紐約市直至2018年才移除他的紀念雕像。
[註22] 同[註7]
[註23] 同[註20]
[註24] The Atlantic: The Surgeon Who Experimented on Slaves
https://tinyurl.com/yxgclsue
As Washington describes in her book Medical Apartheid, African Americans
continued to be subjected to torturous experimentation well into the
twentieth century. This research includes forced sterilization and long-term
contraception, brain surgery on young boys, injections of different viruses
on prisoners, and application of painful dermatological chemicals. Even in
death, African Americans could still be subjected to experimentation and
anatomical dissection.
如同華盛頓在《醫療種族隔離》[註25]（Medical Apartheid）中所敘述，直至20世紀，
非裔美國人都被迫承受痛苦的實驗。這些研究包括強迫絕育、長時間避孕、對年輕男孩進
行腦部手術、對囚犯注射各種病毒，以及施加引發痛苦的皮膚科化學物。即便是死亡的非
裔美國人[註26]都被用作實驗與身體解剖。
[註25] 同 [註20]
[註26] Time: The Disturbing History of African-Americans and Medical Research
Goes Beyond Henrietta Lacks https://tinyurl.com/ybw7teob
Medical Imperialism
醫療帝國主義
Recognizing the dangers posed by human research, particularly following
revelations about experimentation during World War II, regulations and
guidelines were implemented in the latter half of the twentieth century. In
1964, the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of Helsinki’s
guidance for ethical medical research on human subjects, a document which has
been revised multiple times to further increase safeguards. (Notably, the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration has removed all references to this document
in their own regulations).
人們認知到人體研究的危險，特別是二戰期間的實驗被揭露[註27]後，20世紀後半葉，各
種管制與方針開始施行。1964年，世界醫學協會（World Medical Association）採用《
赫爾辛基宣言》[註28]對於人體進行醫學研究的道德方針。為了進一步增加保護措施，這
份文件歷經數次修改。（值得注意的是，美國食品藥品監督管理局（FDA）在自己的規範
中，移除所有對於這份文件的引用[註29]。）
[註27] CNN: Unethical experiments' painful contributions to today's medicine
https://tinyurl.com/y9l5wxn6
[註28] WMA DECLARATION OF HELSINKI – ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH
INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS https://tinyurl.com/y7f5boyg
[註29] The battle of Helsinki: Two troublesome paragraphs in the Declaration
of Helsinki are causing a furore over medical research ethics
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1500825/
In spite of these guidelines and the end of overt nonconsensual
experimentation on black Americans, examples abound of unethical research on
Africans and in the Global South. In 1996, Pfizer improperly conducted a
trial for an experimental meningitis antibiotic, leading the company to pay
settlements to the families of the children who died. Around the same time,
numerous HIV trials raised ethical concerns when participants received
placebos instead of supported treatments, and reported adverse effects which
were ignored.
儘管有了這些方針，對於美國黑人公然進行強迫實驗也終止了，在南方國家，對非洲人從
事不道德研究的案例仍然很多[註30]。1996年，輝瑞（Pfizer）為了實驗中的腦膜炎抗生
素[註31]，進行了一次不當試驗，導致該公司必須向死亡孩童的家人支付和解金。同時，
許多HIV試驗[註32]也引發了道德關注；在這些試驗中，參與者接受安慰劑而非支持性治
療，不良反應被揭發後[註33]仍被忽略。
[註30] SOMO: Examples of unethical trials
https://www.somo.nl/examples-of-unethical-trials/
[註31] The Guardian: Pfizer pays out to Nigerian families of meningitis drug
trial victims https://tinyurl.com/ycb64v9k
[註32] 同[註16]
[註33] Aljazeera: Medical colonialism in Africa is not new
https://tinyurl.com/ybqh3tuc
Ethically dubious research has continued into the twenty-first century. A BBC
article from 2012 asks, “Have India’s poor become human guinea pigs?”
about revelations that Indians from the bottom of the caste system
participated in research without their knowledge. During the 2014 and 2016
Ebola outbreak, over 250,000 blood samples were drawn from West African
patients who did not give informed consent to participate in research. The
international laboratories who took the samples now refuse to release them or
disclose how many are left. This is just a small sample of unethical research
practices conducted in the Global South by multinational corporations in the
Global North. Considering the vigor with which these corporations guard their
research, there are undoubtedly more cases where misconduct may never come to
light.
直至21世紀，充滿道德疑慮的研究仍然存在。2012年，一篇《英國廣播公司》（BBC）的
文章[註34]質問「印度窮人已淪為人類小白鼠了？」，揭露了印度種姓制度底層的人民如
何在不知情的情況下參與研究。2014至2016年伊波拉病毒爆發期間，國際規模的實驗室在
未獲知情同意的情況下，蒐集超過25萬名西非病人的血液樣本[註35]。採樣的實驗室如今
拒絕釋出樣本，或是公開究竟還保留多少。這只是北方國家跨國公司在南方國家從事不道
德研究的小小案例。這些企業致力捍衛自己的研究，想必有更多不端無法被公諸於世。
[註34] BBC: Have India’s poor become human guinea pigs?
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20136654
[註35] The Telegraph: Ebola's lost blood: row over samples flown out of
Africa as 'big pharma' set to cash in https://tinyurl.com/yajjme57
Nationalize Big Pharma
國有化製藥大廠
Importantly, people in developing nations often do not reap the rewards of
medical research. The WHO has found that over 19% of children globally do not
receive vaccines for diseases such as measles, largely due to barriers caused
by poverty. The clinical research boom in India only began in 2005 after new
patent laws — a condition for membership to the World Trade Organization
(WTO) — restricted the availability of generic drugs and increased licensing
fees, a victory for multinational drug companies that made many drugs
prohibitively expensive for poorer Indians. Countries which flout patent laws
to provide life-saving medication face the wrath of multinational companies,
the WTO, and politicians. In 1999, South Africa faced fierce opposition for
bypassing patent laws to provide cheap drugs during the AIDS epidemic. As
these cases show, the lives of people in the Global South are necessary
sacrifices to be made at the altar of profit maximization.
重要的是，發展中國家的民眾通常無法享受這些醫學研究的成果。世衛組織[註36]發現，
全球有超過19%[註37]的孩童無法獲得麻疹等疾病的疫苗，大部分是因為貧窮所造成的阻
礙。印度的臨床實驗在2005年迅速成長[註38]，當時新的專利法[註39]（成為世界貿易組
織會員的條件之一）限制通用藥的供應並增加許可費用。這是跨國藥品公司的勝利，這些
公司將許多藥品訂價高昂到印度窮人無法負擔的程度。藐視專利法而提供救命藥品的國家
則面臨跨國公司、世貿組織與政客的怒火。1999年，南非因為在愛滋疫情期間通過提供便
宜藥品的專利法而遭遇強烈反對[註40]。這些案例顯示為了利潤極大化，有必要犧牲南方
國家人民的性命。
[註36] WHO: 1 in 5 children in Africa do not have access to life-saving
vaccines https://tinyurl.com/y9crzxm8
[註37] WHO: Immunization coverage https://tinyurl.com/yxd4nujg
[註38] Lancet: Regulation failing to keep up with India's trials boom
https://tinyurl.com/y9t7rhjk
[註39] NY Times: India Alters Law on Drug Patents https://tinyurl.com/y9weuu58
[註40] Nature: Gore under fire in controversy over South Africa AIDS drug law
https://www.nature.com/articles/21472
Some developing countries, such as India, have tightened regulations in
response to death and disease caused by substandard pharmaceutical research.
In 2014, as part of a clinical trial for an experimental vaccine against
rotavirus — a viral disease responsible for over 3% of deaths in children
under five globally — over 2,000 children in India were injected with a
placebo treatment rather than an alternative vaccine that was already
available. Tellingly, in response to these increased regulations, the head of
the Association of Clinical Research Organizations responded that clinical
trials “can be relocated to more hospitable countries to mitigate the direct
economic damage,” highlighting that concerns lie primarily with economic,
not human, cost.
某些發展中國家，例如印度，用加強管制來回應不符規定的製藥研究所造成的死亡與疾病
。2014年，為了實驗中的輪狀病毒疫苗（全球5歲以下的孩童，有超過3%因此病毒而死亡
）所進行的臨床實驗，對2千多名印度孩童[註41]施打安慰劑而非既存的替代疫苗。臨床
研究協會組織主席回應[註42]日漸嚴格的管制時表示，臨床試驗可以「移至較友善的國家
，減輕直接的經濟損害」，這番言論凸顯經濟成本而非人命才是主要考量。
[註41] Huffpost: Unethical Clinical Trials Still Being Conducted in
Developing Countries https://tinyurl.com/ycuye7gg
[註42] Businesswire : ACRO Testifies Before U.S. International Trade
Commission On Effects of India Industrial Policies on Economy
https://tinyurl.com/y6vgy4w6
In a market-driven system for developing medical treatment, where drug and
vaccine trials are primarily conducted by multinational corporations who are
pressured to produce findings and cut costs at every step, unethical research
practices will flourish. Racism and the long history of experimentation in
imperialized countries will ensure that Black and Brown people bear the brunt
of this unethical research. A system that prioritizes profit maximization and
shareholder value will find ways to circumvent regulations and thwart any
revenue-threatening attempts to protect research participants. In spite of
increased regulations in recent decades, we are far from the end: in 2015,
management consulting firm (and capitalism gospel-spreader) McKinsey & Co.
declared Africa a “continent of opportunity for pharma and patients.”
在市場驅動的醫療發展系統中，藥物與疫苗試驗主要由跨國公司進行，這些公司的每一步
都承受產出成果與削減成本的壓力，因此不道德的研究仍然猖獗。種族主義與在被帝國殖
民國家進行實驗的悠久歷史，將確保黑人與中東人承受不道德研究的結果。將利益最大化
與股東利益置於首位的系統也會找到規避管制的方法，並阻止任何保護研究參與的企圖損
害自己的盈利。儘管數十年來逐漸加強相關管制，我們做得仍然不夠：2015年，管理顧問
公司（資本主義福音傳播者[註43]）麥肯錫公司（McKinsey & Co）即宣佈[註44]，非洲
對於「藥廠與病人而言，是充滿機會的大陸。」
[註43] Current Affairs: McKinsey & Company: Capital’s Willing Executioners
https://tinyurl.com/y3p2tro3
[註44] McKinsey : Africa: A continent of opportunity for pharma and patients
https://tinyurl.com/yd8u88s8
The road to medical discovery is paved with the lives of countless Black and
Brown people from formerly colonized nations. The COVID-19 pandemic requires
action on a global scale and, as the French doctors’ remarks show,
corporations and governments in the Global North could easily use this crisis
to continue exploiting these individuals. Pharmaceutical companies and
medical research should be put under the democratic control of workers,
scientists, and doctors, free of the profit motive that encourages
exploitation of research subjects. We must also enable countries in the
Global South to develop their own research infrastructure to protect local
participants, and demand an end to the imperialist extraction and
under-development that has plagued the Global South for centuries. This
expropriation would allow both science and the means of production to be put
in the service of all of humanity, and make it possible to conduct research
into the many diseases that get neglected by Western companies. Medical
research should be ethically conducted and used for the common good,
including for people in the Global South who are more likely to be victims of
research than beneficiaries of its findings.
醫學發現的道路上，佈滿了無數前殖民地國家中黑人與中東人的生命。新冠病毒疫情需要
全球規模的行動，而法國醫師的言論顯示，北方國家的企業與政府將可輕易利用這場危機
繼續剝削南方國家的人民。製藥公司與醫學研究應該受到工人、科學家與醫師的民主控制
[註45]，而非鼓勵剝削研究對象的利潤趨力。我們也必須確保南方國家發展自己的研究基
礎建設[註46]來保護當地參與者，要求終止折磨南方國家長達數世紀的帝國主義搾取與低
度發展。這樣的徵用將讓科學與生產方式為了所有人而服務，並且從事許多被西方企業忽
略[註47]的疾病研究。醫學研究的進行應該符合道德並且為了所有的福祉，包括南方國家
的人民，他們往往是研究的犧牲者而非其成果的受益者。
[註45] Left Voice: Nationalize All Healthcare Now!
https://tinyurl.com/ybgkjydg
[註46] 同 [註12]
[註47] Huffpost: Why The World Ignores Diseases Of Poverty
https://tinyurl.com/yad3e6c6